The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

In ancient Egypt, the power of the god Amun of Thebes gradually increased during the early New Kingdom, and after the short persecution led by Akhenaten, it rose to its apex. In the reign of Ramesses III, more than two thirds of the property owned by the temples belonged to Amun, evidenced by the stupendous buildings at Karnak. Although badly ruined, no site in Egypt is more impressive than Karnak. It is the largest temple complex ever built by man, and represents the combined achievement of many generations of ancient builders. The Temple of Karnak is actually three main temples, smaller enclosed temples, and several outer temples located about three kilometers north of Luxor, Egypt situated on 100 ha (247 acres) of land. Karnak is actually the sites modern name. Its ancient name was Ipet-isut, meaning "The Most Select (or Sacred) of Places".

This vast complex was built and enlarged over a thirteen hundred year period. The three main temples of Mut, Montu and Amun are enclosed by enormous brick walls. The Open Air Museum is located to the north of the first courtyard, across from the Sacred Lake. The main complex, The Temple of Amun, is situated in the center of the entire complex. The Temple of Monthu is to the north of the Temple of Amun, and next to it, on the inside of the enclosure wall is the Temple of Ptah, while the Temple of Mut is to the south. There is also the small Temple dedicated to Khonsu, and next to it, an even smaller Temple of Opet. Actually, there are a number of smaller temples and chapels spread about Karnak, such as the Temple of Osiris Hek-Djet (Heqadjet), which is actually inside the enclosure wall of the Temple of Amun.

Video 1. The temple of Karnak

In the Great Temple of Amun, the Second Pylon of Karnak was built by Ramesses II. The Ptolemies did some extensive repairing and some new building on the center section. Curiously enough, they left the columns and the facade of the First Pylon unfinished and left the mud-brick ramp where it was at. The reason for the work being left unfinished is not clear.

The Hypostyle Hall is found after passing through the Second Pylon. The hall is considered to be one of the world’s greatest architectural masterpieces. Construction began during Ramesses I’s reign. He was the king who founded the Nineteenth Dynasty and was king for only one year. The work continued under Seti I (1306 – 1290 BC). Seti I also built the Temple of Abydos and many other temples. The hall was completed by Seti I’s son, Ramesses II. The effects that are produced inside the hall are much different than they were originally. The huge architraves are not above the capitals that tower above. Toward the center of the hall several architraves and windows that have stone latticework still remain. 

Video 2. The temple of Karnak

This small area can give one an idea of the builders’ intent for the lighting effects. Some imagination is required here to appreciate what it must have looked like. The walls, ceilings and columns are painted with the natural earth tones. The light that was allowed in originally kept most of the hall in shadows. The hall ceiling was 82 feet high and was supported by 12 papyrus columns. The columns are made of sandstone and set in two rows of six. Each row is flanked on either side by 7 rows of columns that are 42 feet (12.8m) high. Each row has 9 columns, however the inner rows have 7 columns. The reliefs throughout the hall contain symbolism of Creation. The reliefs in the northern half are from the time period of Seti I and are obviously better done than those done by his son Ramesses II, which are in the southern half. Ramesses II’s reliefs are cut much deeper than those of Seti’s. This gives a much more dramatic light and shadow effect.

The outer walls of the Hypostyle Hall are covered with scenes of battle. Again, Seti I is to the north and Ramesses II is to the south. The scenes have long since lost their color that was painted and the outlines of the scenes have been blurred by the centuries of wind and sun. It is unsure whether the scenes of battle are based on historical fact or of ritual significance. It is thought that when the battle details are very precise, real events are most likely involved. Seti’s battles take place in Lebanon, southern Palestine and Syria. The southern walls of Ramesses II  have hieroglyphic texts which actually record details of the Hittite king and Ramesses II signing a peace treaty in the twenty-first year of Ramesses reign. This is the first evidence found for a formal diplomatic agreement and is certainly historical.

The Transverse Hall lies beyond the rear wall of the Hypostyle Hall. The wall is mostly ruined. With the Transverse Hall is a partially reconstructed Third Pylon of Amenhotep (Amenophis) III. The Transverse Hall has remains of the earliest sections of the Karnak complex that are still in existence.

Leaving the hypostyle hall through the third pylon you come to a narrow court where there once stood several obelisks. One of the obelisks was erected by Tuthmosis I (1504 – 1492 BC) who was the father of Hatshepsut. This obelisk stands 70 feet (21.3m) tall and weighs about 143 tons. During the centuries between Tuthmosis I and Ramesses VI, the kings of the time did more than their share of destroying and dismantling. This obelisk was never touched. The original inscription was left in its place. However, two kings did add their inscription on either side of the  original. Beyond this obelisk is the only remaining Obelisk of Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC). It is 97 feet (29.6m) high and weighs approximately 320 tons. Besides the Lateran obelisk in Rome, this is the tallest standing obelisk. The one in Rome is 101 feet (30.7m) high. Hatshepsut was a woman who dared to challenge the tradition of male kingship. She died from undisclosed causes after imposing her will for a time. After her death, her name and memory suffered attempted systematic obliteration. The inscription on the obelisk says, "O ye people who see this monument in years to come and speak of that which I have made, beware lest you say, ‘I know not why it was done’. I did it because I wished to make a gift for my father Amun, and to gild them with electrum." 

Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 BC) was Hatshepsut’s successor. When he came to power, he built a high wall around her obelisk. This wall hid the lower two-thirds but left the upper towering above. It has been thought that this was an easier and cheaper way of destroying her memory than actually tearing it down and removing it. If Tuthmosis III had really wanted to destroy the obelisk, he would have certainly torn it down and removed it. Perhaps that was another reason  for his building the wall. The top of the obelisk was visible for 50 miles (80 km). The pink granite for the obelisk was quarried at Aswan, which is several hundred miles south of Karnak. The stone was moved several miles over to the river and shipped down to Thebes. The setting of the stone is shown on reliefs as the pharaoh raising it with a single rope tied to its upper extremity. This is most probably symbolic, but may have been done this way with several hundreds of people pulling together. To the south of the standing obelisk is its companion which has fallen. It was also made of a single block of granite but is broken now.
The Sixth Pylon, which was built by Tuthmosis III, leads into a Hall of Records in which the king recorded his tributes. Very little remains of this archive beyond two granite pillars. Just beyond these pillars lies the Holy of Holies or sanctuary. Originally it was the oldest part of the temple. The present sanctuary was built by the brother of Alexander the Great, Philip Arrhidaeus (323-316 BC) who was the King of Macedonia. The present sanctuary was built on the site of the earlier sanctuary built by Tuthmosis III. The present sanctuary contains blocks from the Tuthmosis sanctuary and still contain Tuthmosis’ inscriptions. The sanctuary is built in two sections. 

The Karnak Temples are open from 6:30 am until 5:30 pm in winter and from 6 am to 6 pm during summer. Admission is LE1 20 for foreigners, LE 10 for foreign students, LE 2 for Egyptians and LE 1 for Egyptian students. Visiting the open-air museum, to the left of the second pylon, costs an extra LE 10. The museum contains a collection of statuary that was found throughout the temple complex. The ticket has to be purchased at the main Karnak ticket kiosk.

Video 3. The temple of Karnak: Karnak Temple Luxor Egypt, with its famous hypostyle hall of 134 columns 23 meters tall, the temple of Amon is the largest columned temple in the world.

Karnak takes at least a half of a day just to walk around its many precincts and years to come to know it well. 

There is also a Sound and Light Show at Karnak.  The show starts with a historical introduction covering the birth of the great city of Thebes and erection of the Karnak temple. The show also narrates the glorious achievements of some great Pharaohs. The Spectators listen to a magnificent and poetic description of the artistic treasures and great legacy which the Karnak temple encloses.

References

1. Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Wilkinson, Richard H,2000, Thames and Hudson, Ltd,  ISBN 0-500-05100-3
2. History of Egyptian Architecture, A (The Empire (the New Kingdom) From the Eighteenth Dynasty to the End of the Twentieth Dynasty 1580-1085 B.C., Badawy, Alexander, 1968,  University of California Press,  LCCC A5-4746
3. Luxor, Karnak and the Theban Temples, Siliotti, Alberto, 2002,  American University In Cairo Press, ISBN 977 424 641 1
4. Temples of Karnak,  de Lubicz, R. A. Schwaller, 1999,  Inner Tradition, ISBN 0-89281-712-7
5. Thebes in Egypt: A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor,  Strudwick, Nigel & Helen,  Cornell University Press, ISBN 0 8014 8616 5

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

Perhaps after the Giza pyramids, or coincident with them, the great temple of Abu Simbel presents the most familiar image of ancient Egypt to the modern traveler and reader. When the conservation efforts to preserve the temple from the soon-to be built High Aswan Dam and its rising waters were begun in the 1960s, images of the colossal statues filled newspapers and books. The temples were dismantled and relocated in 1968 on the desert plateau, 200 feet above and 600 feet west of their original location.

Figure 1. Abu Simbel temple: An ancient earthquake damaged the statues. One is demolished from the waist up.  (Click to enlarge figure)

Abu Simbel lies south of Aswan on the western bank of the Nile, 180 miles south of the First Cataract in what was Nubia. The site was known as Meha in ancient times and was first documented in the 18th Dynasty, when Ay and Horemheb had rock-cut chapels hewn in the hills to the south.

Ramesses II, called "the Great," built seven rock-cut temples in Nubia. The rock-cut temple of Ramesses II on the west bank of the Nile at Abu Simbel is the greatest of these. This temple was not seen by Europeans until J.J. Burckhardt discovered them in 1813.

Video 1. Abu Simbel temple: Abu Simbel, in the heart of Nubian territory, almost on the borders of Sudan and about 300KM from Aswan, is the most beautiful and imposing construction of the greatest pharaoh in Egyptian history.

The temple, called Hwt Ramesses Meryamun, the "Temple of Ramesses, beloved of Amun," was begun fairly early in Ramesses’ long reign, commissioned some time after his fifth regnal year, but not completed until his 35th regnal year. The massive facade of the main temple is dominated by the four seated colossal statues of Ramesses. These familiar representations are of Ramesses II himself. Each statue, 67 feet high, is seated on a throne and wears the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. Each is taller than the famed Memnon Colossus at Thebes, and all are sculpted directly from the rock face. The thrones are decorated on their sides with Nile gods symbolically uniting Egypt.

Video 2. Animated slideshow of the Desert and River at Aswan and the Temples that were moved at Abu Simbel.

Burckhardt said of the first face on the left that it "was the most expressive, youthful countenance, approaching nearer to the Grecian model of beauty than that of any ancient Egyptian figure I have seen."

Figure 2. Abu Simbel temple (Click to enlarge figure)

Between the legs and on each of their sides stand smaller statues of members of the royal family. The smaller statues of relatives were probably, for the first southern colossus: Queen Nefretari by the left leg, the king’s mother, the great wife of Seti I, Muttuya by his right leg, and Prince Amenhirkhopshef in front. For the second southern colossus, Princess Bent’anta stood by the left leg, Princess Nebettawyby the left, and one unnamed female figure, probably that of a lesser royal wife named Esenofre.

The family statues at the first northern colossus were, Queen Nefretari, Princess Beketmut and Prince Riameses in front. For the second northern colossus, there were Princess Merytamun, Queen Muttuya and Princess Nofretari.  Beneath these giant sculptures are carved figures of bound captives.

The forecourt or terrace which fronted the temple contained two tanks for the ablutions of the priests. On the northern side of this terrace stood a small sun-chapel, and on the south, stood a chapel of the god Thoth. Above the entrance, a figure of the falcon-headed sun-god Ra is shown worshipped by flanking images of Ramesses. The rebus figure of Ra contains the prenomen of Ramesses II, or Userma’atre: the falcon headed god Ra has next to his right leg the glyph showing the head and neck of an animal, read User, and the goddess at his left leg is ma’at. At the top of the temple façade is a row of baboon statues in adoring attitudes, said to welcome the rising sun.

Video 3. "Abu Simbel" is considered the most impressive of the several buildings King Ramses II built. The Sun Temple has been sitting along the Niles banks since 1250 BC in southern Egypt.The central entrance leads into a large hall with massive pillars fronted by Osiris figures of the king. The temple was oriented so that the rays of the rising sun would light up the statues of the gods twice a year. The Solstices’ occurrence commemorates Ramses II’s ascension to the throne (22nd February )and his birthday (22nd October).When the temple was threatened by submersion,during the construction of the Aswan Dam,the UNESCO,in 1963,launched a world wide appeal.During the salvage operation,the temple was dismantled and raised over 60 meters up the sandstone cliff where it had been built more than 3,000 years before.

A stela at the southern end of the external terrace is called "the Marriage Stela," and is a copy of the record of one of Ramesses II’s diplomatic triumphs, his marriage to a daughter of the Hittite king Hattusilis III.

Within the temple a series of chambers becomes increasingly smaller as the floors of the rooms rise noticeably. This is a basic convention of temple design, as one moves into the temple deeper to the sanctuary which would contain the primeval mound of creation, rising out of the waters of Nun.

The first hall within the temple contains eight large statues of the king as Osiris, four on each side, which also serve as pillars to support the roof. The walls are decorated in relief with scenes showing the king in battle, including the great battle of Kadesh on the north, and Syrian, Libyan and Nubian wars on the south wall, and also presenting prisoners to the gods.

On the north entrance wall in this Hypostyle hall a scene shows Ramesses in the presence of Amun, to whom the king appealed during his battle at Kadesh against the Hittites.

Behind the first hall is a second smaller hall with ritual offering scenes. Here in one scene both Ramesses and Nefertari are depicted before the sacred barque of Amun, and in another, before the sacred barque of Ra-Horakhaty. Three doors lead from here into a vestibule, and then one reaches the sanctuary.

The sanctuary contains a small altar and in its rear niche are four statues. These cult images represent Ramesses II himself, and the three state gods of the New Kingdom, Ra-Horakhty of Heliopolis, Ptah of Memphis and Amun-Ra of Thebes. Before the statues rests a block upon which would have rested the sacred barque itself.

The axis of the temple is arranged so that on two days of the year, in February and October, the rising sun shoots its rays through the entrance and halls until it finally illuminates the sanctuary statues.

To the north of the main temple a smaller temple was built in honor of Ramesses’ great wife, Nefertari, and the goddess Hathor. This temple should not be confused with the beautiful Tomb to Nefertari in the Valley of Queens near Thebes.

As with Ramesses’ own temple, the cliff face was cut back to resemble sloping walls of a pylon. Six colossal standing figures 33 feet high four of Ramesses and two of Nefertari, were cut from the rock face, along with smaller figures of the royal family. An inscription over the entrance reads "Ramesses II, he has made a temple, excavated in the mountain, of eternal workmanship, for the chief queen Nefertari, beloved of Mu, in Nubia, forever and ever, Nefertari for whose sake the very sun does shine."

Inside, Nefertari’s temple has a single pillared hall, with carved Hathor heads atop the pillars. On the sides facing the center of the hypostyle; Ramesses is shown smiting his enemies and offering before various gods, while Nefertari is shown, graceful and slender, with hands raised. Three doors lead to a vestibule with ancillary rooms at either end.

Video 4. Inside Abu Simbel

The sanctuary is complete, though two spaces were left on its side walls for doors to rooms, which were never cut. The inner chamber contains a number of images interrelating the royal couple and the gods. On the rear wall, Hathor is depicted in high relief as a cow emerging from the western mountain, with the king standing beneath her chin. Nefertari is shown repeatedly participating in the divine rituals on an equal footing with the king. On the left wall, Nefertari is seen worshipping before Mut and Hathor, and on the right, Ramesses worships before images of his deified self and his wife.

Video 5. Inside Abu Simbel

When Greek mercenaries passed by in the 6th century BCE, sand already reached the knees of the statues. These ancient sight-see-ers left an inscription which reads "When King Psammetichus  came to Elephantine, this was written by those who sailed with Psammetichus the son of Theolces, and they came beyond Kerkis as far as the river permits."

References

1. Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt by John Baines and Jaromir Malek
   Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
   Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt by Richard Wilkinson

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

The Nile is the longest river in the world, stretching north for approximately 4,000 miles from East Africa to the Mediterranean. Studies have shown that the River (Iteru, meaning, simply, River, as the Egyptians called it) gradually changed its location and size over millions of years. The Nile flows from the mountains in the south to the Mediterranean in the north. Egyptians traveling to other lands would comment on the “wrong” flow of other rivers. For example, a text of Tuthmosis I in Nubia describes the great Euphrates river as the “inverted water that goes downstream in going upstream.”

Three rivers flowed into the Nile from the south and thus served as its sources: the Blue Nile, the White Nile and the Arbara. Within the southern section between Aswan and Khartoum, land which was called Nubia, the River passes through formations of hard igneous rock, resulting in a series of rapids, or cataracts, which form a natural boundary to the south. Between the first and second cataracts lay Lower Nubia, and between the second and sixth cataracts lay upper Nubia.

Along most of its length through Egypt, the Nile has scoured a deep, wide gorge in the desert plateau. At Aswan North of the first cataract the Nile is deeper and its surface smoother. Downstream from Aswan the Nile flows northerly to Armant before taking a sharp bend, called the Qena. From Armant to Hu, the River extends about 180 kilometers and divides the narrow southern valley from the wider northern valley.

Southern Egypt, thus being upstream, is called Upper Egypt, and northern Egypt, being downstream and the Delta, is called Lower Egypt. In addition to the Valley and the Delta, the Nile also divided Egypt into the Eastern and Western Deserts.

The Nile Valley is a canyon running 660 miles long with a floodplain occupying 4,250 square miles. The Delta spans some 8,500 square miles and is fringed in its coastal regions by lagoons, wetlands, lakes and sand dunes.

The Delta represented 63 percent of the inhabited area of Egypt, extending about 200 kilometers from south to north and roughly 400 kilometers from east to west. While today the Nile flows through the Delta in only two principal branches, the Damietta and the Rosetta, in ancient times there were three principal channels, known as the water of Pre, the water of Ptah and the water of Amun. In classical or Graeco-Roman times, these were called the Pelusiac, the Sebennytic, and the Canopic branches. There were additionally subsidiary branches or artificially cut channels.

The most dominant features of the Delta as the sandy mounds of clay and silt that appear as islands rising 1-12 meters above the surrounding area. Since these mounds would not be submerged by the inundation, they were ideal sites for Predynastic and Early Dynastic settlements, and indeed evidence of human habitation have been found. Perhaps these mounds rising above the water table inspired the ancient belief of creation as having begun on a mound of earth that emerged from the primordial waters of Nun (Pyramid Text 600).

There were several major oases of the Western desert, which comprised about 2/3 of Egypt: the Fayoum, where during the Middle Kingdom period the capital of all Egypt was situated, and which increasingly became one of the most densely populated and agriculturally productive area in Egypt, the Bahriya, where many sarcophagi of the Graeco-Roman period have been found, the so-called Golden Mummies, Kharga and Dakhla, which were known for their excellent wines, and Siwa, whose Oracle of Amun was consulted by Alexander the Great to demonstrate that he was the true successor to the kingship of Egypt.

The Eastern Desert was exploited in Pharaonic times for its rich minerals. The mere mention of the name of the Nile evokes for modern man images of Pyramids, great temples, fantastic tales of mummies, and wondrous treasures. But the Nile represents life itself to the people of Egypt, ancient and modern. In fact, for thousands of years, the River has made life possible for hundreds of thousands of people and animals, and has shaped the culture we today are only beginning to truly understand.

The River filled all areas of life with symbolism. In religion, for example, the creator sun-god Ra (Re) was believed to be ferried across the sky daily in a boat (compare that to the Greeks and Romans whose non-creator sun-god rode across the sky in a chariot driven by fiery horses, and Hymns to Hapy (Hapi), the deity personifying the Nile, praise his bounty and offerings were left to him, and the creation myths, as mentioned earlier, revolve around the primordial mound rising from the floodwaters surrounding it; in ritual where Nile creatures such as the hippopotamus, whose shape the goddess Tawaret took, or the crocodile, called Sobek, or Heket (Heqet), the frog, deities deemed powerful in the processes of childbirth and fertility, were revered, in writing, where floral signs such as the lotus and papyrus figured prominently, in architecture, where the very structure of temples emulated the mounds of the Nile and its waves, from the bottom to the top of capital columns and the trim on walls, and in travel, where models of boats have been found dating from the fifth millennium BCE. and. The god Hapy was earlier mentioned as being the personification of the floods and ensuing fertility. Two Hymns to the Nile, one probably composed in the Middle Kingdom, the second written later in the Ramesside period, praise Hapy and the river for its renewed life for Egypt.

“Hail to you Hapy, Sprung from earth, Come to nourish Egypt…Food provider, bounty maker, Who creates all that is good!…Conqueror of the Two Lands, He fills the stores, Makes bulge the barns, Gives bounty to the poor.” (from the Middle Kingdom hymn as translated by Lichtheim)

From the earliest times, the waters of the Nile, swollen by monsoon rains in Ethiopia, flooded over the surrounding valley every year between June and September of the modern calendar. A nilometer was used to measure the height of the Nile in ancient times. It usually consisted of a series of steps against which the increasing height of the Inundation, as well as the general level of the river, could be measured. Records of the maximum height were kept. Surviving nilometers exist connected with the temples at Philae, on the Nubian Egyptian border, Edfu, Esna, Kom Ombo, and Dendera, as well as the best-known nilometer on the island of Elephantine at Aswan.

Video 1. Egypt: A gift from Nile

The ancient Egyptian calendar, made up of twelve months of 30 days each, was divided into three seasons, based upon the cycles of the Nile. The three seasons were: akhet, Inundation, peret, the growing season, and shemu, the drought or harvest season. During the season of the Inundation, layers of fertile soil were annually deposited on the flood-plain. Chemical analysis has shown how fertile the Nile mud is. It contains about 0.1 percent of combined nitrogen, 0.2 percent of phosphorus anhydrides and 0.6 percent of potassium.

Since most of the Egyptian people worked as farmers, when the Nile was at its highest and they could not plant, they were drafted by corvee into labor projects such as building Pyramids, repairing temples and other monuments and working on the king’s tomb.

Herodotus, the great Greek philosopher, wrote of the Nile: “the river rises of itself, waters the fields, and then sinks back again; thereupon each man sows his field and waits for the harvest.” The great historian also called Egypt the gift of the Nile. This description would lead the casual reader to imagine Egypt as being a great paradise where the people simply sat and waited for the sowing and harvesting to need be done. But the ancient Egyptians knew better. Too high a flood from their river, and villages would be destroyed; too low a flood, and the land would turn to dust and bring famine. Indeed, one flood in five was either too low or too high.

The rock inscription called the Famine Stela, dated in its present form from the Ptolemaic period, recounts an incident, (whether real or fictitious is not currently known for certain), from the period of King Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty. The King writes to a governor in the south, describing himself as disheartened over the country’s seven-year famine. The King learns from a priest of Imhotep that if gifts are given to the temple of Khnum, the creator-god of the region, who it was believed had control over the Nile and its flooding, then the famine would be ended.

Video 2. The Nile river

Many modern travelers to Egypt today take a Nile cruise as part of their package. And why not? For to see the land as its people do, one must journey on the river. A felucca is often the water vehicle of choice.
A typical Felucca on the Nile

The Nile flowed from south to north at an average speed of about four knots during inundation season. The water level was on average about 25-33 feet deep and navigation was fast. That made a river voyage from Thebes (modern Luxor) north to Memphis (near modern Cairo)  lasting approximately two weeks. During the dryer season when the water level was lower, and speed slower, the same trip would last about two months. At the great bend near Qena, the Nile would flow from west to east and then back from east to west, slowing down travel. No sailing was done at night because of the danger of running aground on one of the many sandbank and low islands.

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Video 3. The Nile river

When one cruises on the Nile, one might pass by the ancient and significant sites of Karnak itself, Luxor, on the other side of the river from Karnak, Dendera, with its grand temple to the goddess Hathor, Abydos, with its marvelous temple built by Seti I as well as being the site of Earlier Dynastic tombs, Esna, with its temple to the potter and creator-god Khnum, lord of the region who was credited as having the power over the river and its richness, Edfu, with its temple to Horus, Kom Ombo, with its double temple to Sobek and a form of Horus called Haroeris, and Aswan itself, with its mighty modern dam.

Truly, the Nile is the Heart of the ancient and modern land of Egypt.
Sources:

“    From the Dictionary of Ancient Egypt by Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson
“    From Egypt and the Egyptians by Doug Brewer and Emily Teeter
“    From Ancient Egypt edited by David Silverman
“    From Life in Ancient Egypt by Eugen Strouhal
“    From Ancient Egypt Uncovered by Vivian Davies and Renee Friedman
“    Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vols. I and III, by Miriam Lichtheim

References:

1-Complete Pyramids, The (Solving the Ancient Mysteries)    Lehner, Mark    1997    Thames and Hudson, Ltd    ISBN 0-500-05084-8
2-Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, The    Shaw, Ian    2000    Oxford University Press    ISBN 0-19-815034-2
3-Pyramids, The (The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt’s Great Monuments)    Verner, Miroslav    2001    Grove Press    ISBN 0-8021-1703-1

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

Antique Beauty & Royality

The Queen Shared with Husband War and Peace

The dream has come true and the restoration works of Nefertari’s tomb, the most beautiful and famous of all queens’ tombs and the summit of art in Egypt, has been achieved…

This tomb has been a symbol of challenge. Since its discovery at the beginning of this century in 1904 by the Italian archaeologist Schiaparelli, it endured bad circumstances, and all rescue efforts were insufficient & hard to be carried out, but, there is will, there is way.

Video 1.  The Temples of Nefertari and Ramses II at Abu Simbel

Cooperation In 1986, the Ministry of Culture and the Egyptian Antiquities Organization in cooperation with Getty Conservation Institute insisted to save the tomb thoroughly. But this time, the work was executed in the best manner utilizing the most modern technical and artistic internationally-adopted methods.

At first, work depended on direct treatment, then scientific experiments were carried out there. Since the development of the monuments restoration and preservation techniques in the second half of the 20th century, the restoration has been changed from traditional natural art to an extensive science.

Naturally in the light of this change, large field and laboratory studies and surveys preceded the work of treatment, restoration and preservation that began in Nefertari’s tomb in 1986.

The Queen

Nefertari, the favorite Queen of Ramses II, is known from myriad of her representations in the temple reliefs and colossi of the great king The dedication to her, jointly with the goddess Hathor, of the small rock temple to the north of the great temple at Abu Simbel, shows how great her influence with Ramses II must have been.

Nefertari was not the only consort of Ramses II. Four other ladies are attested in the inscriptions of his reign to be his queens. She was not an ordinary queen, however and her situation excelled that of former ones. Her name has been rendered as “the Most Beautiful of Them”; a superlative which denotes her most exceptional position, while the designation “Hereditary Princess,” listed for her in several instances, appears to be the indication of her high ranking origin in the society. Her participation in the affairs of the state is unparalleled outside the Amarna Period and is reflected in the titles assigned to her as “Great King’s Wife”. A political role is also reflected by the recurrent designation “Lady of Upper and Lower Egypt” and “Lady of the Two Lands”.

Ahmos’ grand-daughter & Ramses’ wife

Origin

Some Egyptologists think she was probably a daughter of King Seti 1, and thus sister or half sister of Ramses II. Other Egyptologists, however, think that her designation as “Hereditary Princess” might be in some way connected with her being representative of the Thebais. The motive that would prompt such a thesis is the weak footing of the Ramssides in Thebes; their home was in the North and they made strenuous attempts to improve their situation in the South. These Egyptologists claim that nothing is known about her parents, but it seems that she was of royal birth. Others say she is Ahmos’ grand-daughter…At Gebel El-Silsileh there is a shrine of Ramses 11 where depictions show him and Queen Nefertari performing religious functions before sundry deities. This shrine contains an indication that Queen Nefertari was already married to Ramses II at his accession (1290 BC). But she was not mentioned in connection with the King’s First Jubilee in the year 30 of his reign and it seems likely that she died before it. We know that Queen Nefertari was neither the only nor the first bearer of this name. Its first bearer was Queen Ahmes-Nefertari, the mother of the Theban Eighteenth Dynasty who may have been the great-grandmother of our queen. Nefertari’s bearing of the designation “god’s wife” emphasized apparent emulation of Queen Ahmes-Nefertari, who was also the god’s wife…From her name and titles it is apparent that Nefertari played a special role in her time. The fact that Ramses II was eager to show her accompanying him, a feature uncommon otherwise, suggests that she could influence his position in the country.

Most wonderful tomb in the Queen valley

Exclusive honors

Titles; “beautiful face” and “pretty with two feathers” could be taken as reference simply to the queen’s physical appearance. Another describes her as “appeasing the gods”. This expression is associated with kings; and states their adherence to and support of the ritual requirements of the cults. None of the Egyptian queens, so far as we know, had been held in such honor, for none had a temple dedicated to her jointly with a goddess, as was the case with Nefertari at Abu-Simbel..The temple facade has six statues, each 33 feet high, four of them representing the king and two belonging to the queen. The walls ot the temple are adorned with various scenes; some represent the pharaoh defeating his enemies while the queen stands behind him, others represent the king and the queen bearing offerings in the presence of the goddesses and deities, asking their blessings. The most interesting scene represents the coronation of Nefertari by Isis and Hathor. There, the figure of Nefertari stands at the side of the colossus of Ramses II and in the Ramseseum temple. She is represented dancing a ceremonial dance in front of the king during the feast of the god Min.

Her own tomb

Ramses II has a tomb for Nefertari hewn out in the Valley of the Queens called by the ancients “The Place of Beauty”, this tomb is the most beautiful in the Valley of the Queens, and is on the whole worthy of her position in history. The decorative motifs on walls and ceilings are mythological and are concerned with life in the netherworld, meetings with gods, deities, genii and monsters, and the entry into the realm of eternity. In these scenes our queen is represented always wearing long, transparent white garments, with two long feathers over the vulture-like headdress of gold. She wears rich jewels, in addition to bracelets and a wide golden collar.

Description of the tomb

Outer doorway from entrance staircase into outer hall: the two lambs were inscribed with the name of Nefertari. The lintel over the doorway is decorated with a sundisk setting in the horizon flanked on both sides by Wadjet-Eye. The scene also included a depiction of Isis and Nephthys in falcon form. Left and right thickness of the door is decorated with the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet. The Outer Hall has an almost square format of 5.20m by 5.30m. A rock cut bench, with niches below it, designed to support part of the funerary equipment, projects from the western and northern walls. The long inscription above the bench is a rather garbled version of 17th Chapter of the Book of the Dead. The upper register is filled with various scenes, serving as illustrative register of the southern wall containing different scenes.

On the left, the queen is shown on a throne. In her right hand she holds a kind of wand, with the other she reaches for a game. The scene is placed in a kiosk made of reeds. Here the queen plays with her soul.

The next scene shows a bird with the queen’s head, the Egyptian representation of the individual soul. The ba-bird is standing on a scale taking a shape of the tomb. The ba was a psychic force. The word was employed as a synonym of the manifestation of a god. Then the queen herself kneels in front of her soul, with hands uplifted in adoration of two juxtaposed lions, between them the sun’s disk.

Figure 1. Queen Nefertari tomb

These scenes of the two lions mean “yesterday and tomorrow” or “the past and the future”. Then, the graceful bird “benu” is the representation of the phoenix, the sacred bird of Heliopolis. The phoenix was regarded as the soul (ba) of Ra’, but was also a manifestation of Osiris. The bird benu is followed by a multiple scene consisting of a shrine with a bier on which a prepared mummy of the queen is placed. This shrine is flanked on either side by representations of both goddesses Isis and Nephthys.  The next scenes consist of two figures, one squatted bearded deity who holds a palm branch, the other standing before him holding his two outstretched arms over two squares. Next is the seated figure of a falcon headed deity before a largescale “Sacred Eye”. The decoration continues with the registers. They begin at the left with the scene of a cow resting on a support. The next illustration is a composite scene. Its center is a coffin with a jackal placed inside. It is surrounded on both sides by two mummiform figures. The right part of the upper register contains the four “Sons of Horus” accompanied by a fifth apparently Horus himself. To the right is the Jackal- headed Anubis, the god responsible for embalming. On the north side of the passage Osiris is shown in his shrineIn the recess the thickness of the passage is decorated on both sides with the representation of a goddess Selket (Scorpion). West inner face of the recess, the decoration consists of a Djad pillar, the symbolic representation of Osiris. North face of the recess, the scene shows the goddess Isis leading Queen Nefertari to the right, in the realm of god Khepri. South face of recess is decorated with a depiction of Harsiese (Horus son of Isis) holding Nefertari by her hand and introducing her to Harakhty and the West (Hathor)…The scenes decorating the west wall of the side room show the queen bringing linen offering to Ptah. Behind the shrine of Ptah is a large Djad pillar, the symbol of Osiris. The scene on the north wall shows Nefertari paying her respects to the god Thoth. The left part of the wall is covered with a text of eight columns. It is a copy of Chapter 94 of the Book of the Dead.

Figure 2. Queen Nefertari tomb

The east wall of side room is filled with two scenes separated in the center by an up-right standing fan. In the left scene the god Osiris is shown enthroned in the mummiform body, before him are the four “Sons of Horus”. The queen is shown stretching her arm. The parallel right scene depicts the queen’s offerings to god Atum. South wall of this side room is divided into three registers, the two upper being filled with seven cows and one bull. The bottom register shows four steering oars. On the following wall Nefertari with her raised arms in adoration is part of the adjoining last scene. The other panel on this west wall represents Ra’ and Osiris united in the form of a ram-headed figure between Isis & Mephthys.

Figure 3. Queen Nefertari tomb

From the Outer hall a corridor, descending 18 steps continues the funerary designation of the tomb. The descent to the underworld is beautifully decorated. North thickness of upper part of West and East wall of corridor, the space is decorated with the Djad-pillar with two arms holding a scepters. Southern thickness of upper part of West and East wall is decorated with the goddesses Neith & Selket. Upper part of East wall corridor, the composition in the triangular space is arranged in the same way as on the opposite wall. On the left hand Nefertari offers two bowls of milk to goddess Isis behind whom sits Nephthys with Maat. On the right hand, Nefertari makes a similar offering to Hathor behind whom sits Selket, with Maat as before in the background.

Figure 4. Queen Nefertari tomb

Lower down there is a winged Uraeus, guarding two carts of the queen. The underneath, beginning about the kneeling figure of Maat, is another scene in which the Jackal Anubis stretched out on a tomb welcoming the queen. The bottom part of the east wall is decorated by the figure of Nephthys, while the parallel part of the west wall is decorated with Isis. The doorway lambs of the burial chamber are inscribed with the name and titles of Nefertari, while the sofas are decorated with a winged Maat. This corridor leads to that part of the tomb where the funeral ceremony was terminated and in which occurred the final transition to the burial chamber. The burial chamber is a relatively large rectangular room (10.40×8.50m) with four square pillars supporting the ceiling. Two side rooms and a small inner room are accessible from it. The entry walls to the burial chamber are adorned by four goddesses, while the walls are mostly decorated with scenes from the Book of the Dead. The queen is represented passing through nine gates from the domain of Osiris, which are guarded by dreadful demons. On the northern wall of the chamber she is shown before Osiris, Hathor, and Anubis. The four pillars form a kind of shrine to contain her sarcophagus, now lost. The pillars are decorated with the Djad pillar and various deities. The two side rooms flanking the burial chamber on the west and east are poorly preserved. An interesting scene on the eastern wall of the western side room shows Nefertari in the shape of a mummy. The function of the small inner room and two side rooms is not yet known because of their great obliteration.

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

    While Akhenaten led a reform on the Ancient Egyptian religion, he also revolutionized Egyptian art. He broke the conventions of Egyptian art by showing himself in warm family scenes with his wife and children, and portraying himself and the rest of the royal family in a much more human and naturalistic manner than any of his predescessors had. The most peculiar result of this art reform, however, was the portrayal of the physical characteristics of the pharaoh himself.

Figure 1.  Akhenaten odd appearance

    In sculptures and paintings of Akhenaten, he is shown as having a long, slender neck, a long face with a sharp chin, narrow, almond-shaped eyes, full lips, long arms and fingers, rounded thighs and buttocks, a soft belly, and enlarged breasts. His odd appearance was particularly prominent in art from the early part of the reign. One early statue portrays the king in the nude and without genitalia of any kind.

    These features have puzzled archaeologists since Akhenaten was first discovered in the early nineteenth century, and people have offered many explanations as to why he looked this way.

Figure 1.  Akhenaten odd appearance

    One of the early theories was that Akhenaten was actually a woman disguised as a man, and was following in Queen Hatshepsut’s footsteps, but this idea has been abandoned (Aldred, C., 1988, pg. 231). The theory that is most in favor at this time is that Akhenaten suffered from some kind of illness or syndrome which caused his odd appearance. The two most likely possibilities proposed in recent years are Froehlich’s Syndrome (Aldred, C. 1988, Pg. 232), and Marfan’s Syndrome (Redford, D., 1994), (Burridge, A.,1995). This discussion will examine both disorders in detail.

Froehlich’s Syndrome

    The most popular belief is that Akhenaten suffered from Froehlich’s Syndrome, an endocrine disorder found most commonly in men.

    The endocrine system consists of the glands in the body which produce and release into the bloodstream certain chemicals known as hormones. Hormones regulate various bodily functions, like glucose and insulin levels in the blood, growth, salt metabolism, and sexuality. The main endocrine gland is the pituitary, located in the forebrain. The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior pituitary, which regulates the activities of the other glands in the system and is also responsible for the release of growth hormone, and the posterior pituitary, which regulates water and salt metabolism. The pituitary is regulated in turn by the hypothalamus, which also regulates hunger and various other biological functions. (Weiten, W., 1995).

    Froehlich’s Syndrome can be caused by a variety things, the most common being a tumor in either the pituitary gland or the hypothalamus (Aldred, C. 1988, Pg. 232), (Brittanica, Vol. 5, 1992, Pg.19).
If Froehlich’s Syndrome occurs as a tumor only in the pituitary gland, then it mainly seems to affect the secondary sex characteristics in men. The secondary sex characteristics include body hair and deepening of the voice. The reason that Froehlich’s Sydrome causes this lack of sexual development is that the gonads or sex glands (the testes, in men) don’t function properly as a result of the impaired functioning of the pituitary. Froehlich’s Syndrome also results in infertility, a lack of sex drive, and feminine fat distribution (Aldred, C. 1988, Pg. 232).

    If Froehlich’s Syndrome occurs as a tumor in the hypothalamus, then hunger metabolism is affected, and obesity occurs (Brittanica, Vol. 5, 1992, Pg. 19). Since the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland, it then also has the effect of stunting sexual development. Stunted physical growth occurs in either situation. Diabetes can also occur along with Froehlich’s Syndrome. Sometimes the pituitary will become overactive and cause an overgrown jaw and skull deformities (Aldred, C. 1988, Pg. 232).

    How well does this fit Akhenaten? Overall, not too well. Some of the characteristics associated with Froehlich’s Syndrome seem to fit his apparent peculiarities (such as the feminine figure and the prominent jaw), but many of the main symptoms of the illness do not. Akhenaten, despite the fact that he is shown as a eunuch in some of the artwork from his time, seemed to be quite fertile (we know that he fathered six children, possibly more), did not seem to show stunted physical growth, and was definitely not obese. Another symptom of Froehlich’s is severe mental retardation (Burridge, A., 1995), and it is apparent from literary works by the king that he was not at all retarded.

Therefore, it is unlikely that Akhenaten had Froehlich’s Syndrome, and historians have turned to another option: Marfan’s Syndrome.

Marfan’s Syndrome:

    The most recently suggested possibility for Akhenaten’s supposed pathology is a genetic disorder known as Marfan’s Syndrome. This is a more likely possibility than Froehlich’s Syndrome, as it does not affect intelligence or fertility (Burridge, A., 1995), (Redford, D., 1994).

    Marfan’s Syndrome was first described by a French doctor named Antione B. Marfan, who reported that some of his patients had especially long fingers (he called this arachnodactyly, or spider-fingers), skeletal abnormalities (including arms that were disproportionately long), and high, arched pallets. He also noticed spine defects (Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996).

    Antione noted that these traits seemed to be inherited, and it is now certain that Marfan’s Syndrome is a hereditary disease, and the gene for it is autosomal dominant (Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996).

    A dominant gene is one that will overwrite other genes so that only one is required for the trait that that particular gene carries to be expressed. A person who inherits a dominant gene from one parent will automatically have the trait that the gene produces, unlike with recessive genes in which a gene for the trait must be inherited from each parent for the trait to show. Autosomal means that the gene is on a non-sex chromosome. There are 46 chromosomes in every human cell, and they make 23 pairs, each one connected by a centrome. The 23rd pair consists of the sex chromosomes (American Medical Association, 1993). The gene for Marfan’s Syndrome is located on pair fifteen. This gene causes the occurrence of too many microfibrillar fibers in the connective tissue, which results in a lack of flexibility in the body’s tissues (Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996).

    Marfan’s Syndrome almost always occurs as an inherited trait (about 75 to 85 percent of the time), but it can sometimes show up spontaneously in a person from a family that has never shown any signs of the disorder. Marfan’s Syndrome, because it is dominant, will not skip generations (Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996). (A recessive gene can be passed on without showing up for many generations, because two are needed for the trait to show, but if a dominant gene is going to show up, it will do so right away.) Marfan’s syndrome has a 50% chance of being passed on to the children of an affected person. If the gene for Marfan’s Syndrome is passed on, it will invariably show up, but the degree to which it shows its symptoms varies considerably (Bruckheim, A. H., 1993).

    Skeletal abnormalities that have been noticed in Marfan’s patients are a long face, an unusually tall stature, a short upper body in comparison to the lower body (because they have a short ribcage), and overgrown ribs. The latter results in chest deformities such as Pectus Excavatum (funnel chest) or Pectus Carnatum (pigeon breast). A wide pelvis, elongated skull, and prominent shoulder blades are other symptoms (Burridge, A., 1995). One of the most distinctive characteristics of Marfan’s Syndrome is unusually long arms, fingers, and toes. These skeletal problems can show up in either childhood or adolescence, and sometimes they do not show up at all (Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996). Extremely mobile joints are another common characteristic.

    A good many victims have eye problems, like dislocated lenses, severe nearsightedness, iridodensis (a quivering motion of the iris), cataracts, detaching retinas, and glaucoma (Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996).

    Because of the excessive fibers in the tissues of people with Marfan’s Syndrome, their tissues often stretch to the point of breaking under the strain of normal tissue stress. There are often stretch marks on the skin, as a result of this. When this sort of stretching occurs in the aorta (the major artery that comes out of the heart), it can break, resulting in major complications (Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996). Because of the heart problems, people with Marfan’s Syndrome usually have a short life-span, perhaps of about thirty years (Burridge, A., 1995). People with Marfan’s Syndrome often suffer from various lung problems as well. Most patients show signs of emphysema, and 5% of the people with Marfan’s Syndrome have problems with collapsed lungs (Bruckheim, A. H., 1993).
    Muscle weakness may also occur (Bruckheim, A. H., 1993). This, along with the hypermobile joints, can result in accident proneness.

    Marfan’s victims also show a strong sensitivity to cold (Burridge, A., 1995).

    Some other famous people who have been suggested as having Marfan’s Syndrome are Abraham Lincoln, Sergie Rachmaninoff, Niccolo Paginini, Mary, Queen of Scots, and Flo Hyman (Burridge, A., 1995; Wieczorek, Riegel, & Quattro, 1996).

    From this information, it would seem that Marfan’s Syndrome best suits Akhenaten’s possible affliction. He did show traits like arachnodactyly, an unusually long face, a tall, slender build, and a wide pelvis. His relatives are shown as having similar features, and elongated skulls. The fact that the rest of his family apparently showed some of these traits also suggests that he had a genetic disorder such as Marfan’s Syndrome. He also lived for about the amount of time that a Marfan’s victim lives without medical assistance.

Video 1. Marfan’s Syndrome

Other Theories:

    Did Akhenaten really have any kind of ailment at all? There is certainly a possibility that there was nothing wrong with him. Any conclusions drawn simply from looking at artwork are highly questionable. If historians three thousand years in the future were to come to the same sorts of conclusions from looking at today’s political cartoons, for instance, they would probably think that just about every president or political leader that the U.S. has ever had suffered from some kind of bizarre disorder. A good many people have offered alternative explanations as to why Akhenaten was portrayed so strangely.

    One theory is that it was some form of religious symbolism. Because the god Aten was referred to as “The mother and father of all human kind,” it has been suggested that Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the god (Aldred, C. 1988, Pg. 235).

It has also been suggested that the distinctive art of this time was some kind of expressionistic art style, and it has been pointed out that everyone depicted in the artwork of the period showed some of the odd features of the king and his family.

    One thing that would suggest that Akhenaten did have an illness of some kind was the fact that he remained hidden for a good portion of his father’s reign. Normally, a great deal of attention would be devoted to the heir to the throne. It should be noted that Akhenaten had an older brother, Tuthmose, who died at an early age. Perhaps if Marfan’s Syndrome did run in the family, Tuthmose’s early death was a result of some of the complications associated with the disease. If this were the case, though, one would have to wonder why Tuthmose was not hidden as well. Perhaps he did not show some of the more visible abnormalities that are sometimes present, such as the skeletal problems. The extent to which various symptoms of the illness show up can vary greatly.

    Before any specific ailments were suggested, some historians speculated that Akhenaten’s possible illness may have somehow accounted for his strange behavior. This is probably not the case, but Akhenaten did call himself “The Unique One of Re,” and it would seem that he used his odd appearance as part of this image.

    No mummy has yet been identified as being that of Akhenaten. Obviously, it would be hard to tell whether he had symptoms like bad eyesight or heart problems, even if his body were to be found. However, the bodies of several of Akhenaten’s known relatives have been found, and a reasonably sure way we would have of finding out whether Akhenaten had Marfan’s Syndrome would be to do genetic testing on his known relatives. If this were to be done, it would provide invaluable information about Akhenaten and his family.

References.

1- Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc. Fröhlich’s Syndrome Encyclopedia Britannica Vol. 5, 15th ed. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1992
Aldred, C. 1988. Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Thames and Hudson, Ltd.,
London.
2- Brukheim, H., 1993. Marfan’s Syndrome, Art. # 27, The Family Doctor Comp. Software. J. D. Grillo, pub.
3- Burridge, A., Did Akhenaten Suffer From Marfan’s Syndrome? Akhenaten Temple Project Newsletter No. 3, Sept. 1995
4- Clayman, C., ed. , 1993. American Med. Association: Genes and
Inheritance The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc., NY & Montreal (from AMA Medical Home Library series)
5- Wagman, R., ed. , 1992. Vol. 2 of The New Complete Medical and Health Encyclopedia , 4 Vols. J. G. Furguson Pub. Co., Chicago
6- Wieczoreck, P., Reigel, M. B., & Quattro, L., 1996. Marfan’s Syndrome and Surgical Repair of Ascending Aortic Aneurysms. AORN Journal. 64(6)
7- Wieten, W., 1995. Psychology: Themes and Variations 3rd ed. Brook/Cole Publishing

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

Video 1.  Egyptians had an elaborate method and ritual of mummifying a Pharaoh

PREDYNASTIC EGYPT
NARMER – THE SCORPION KING

EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD

THE FIRST DYNASTY – 3050 – 2890 B.C.
Menes – AHA
Djer
Wadj
Den – Udimu
Anedjob
Semerkat
Qa’a

SECOND DYNASTY – 3890-2686 B.C.
Hetepsekhemwy
Reneb
Ninetjer
Peribsen – Sekhemib
Keasekhemwy

Video 2.  Do you want to travel in space? Before travelling, you must see this video…History is the gate of dreams, is the gate of space.

THE OLD KINGDOM – AGE OF THE PYRAMIDS

THIRD DYNASTY – 2650 – 2575 B.C.
Sanakhte (Nebka) 2650 – 2630
Djoser – Netjerykhet 2630 – 2611
Sekhemkhet (Djoser Teti) 2611 – 2603
Khaba 2603 – 2599
Huni 2599 – 2575

FOURTH DYNASTY – 2575 – 2467 B.C.
Snefru 2575 – 2551
Khufu (Cheops) 2551 – 2528
Djedefre 2528 – 2520
Khafre (Chephren) 2520 – 2494
Menkaure (Mycerinus) 2490 – 2472
Shepseskaf 2472 – 2467

FIFTH DYNASTY – 2465 – 2345 B.C.
Userkaf 2465 – 2458
Sahure 2458 – 2446
Neferirkare Kakai 2477-2467
Shepseskare Ini 2426 – 2419
Neferefre 2419 – 2416
Niuserre Izi 2453 – 2422
Menkauhor 2422 – 2414
Djedkare Izezi 2388 – 2356
Unas 2375-2345

SIXTH DYNASTY – 2345 – 2184 B.C.
Teti 2345 – 2333
Pepy I (Meryre) 2332 – 2283
Merenre Nemtyemzaf 2283 2278
Pepy II (Neferkare) 2278 – 2184

Video 3. History of Ancient Egypt 3000 B.C.

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

SEVENTH – TENTH DYNASTIES – 2150 – 1986 B.C.

SEVENTH & EIGHTH DYNASTIES
Netrikare
Menkare
Neferkare II
Neferkare III
Djedkare II
Neferkare IV
Merenhor
Menkamin I
Nikare
Neferkare V
Neferkahor
Neferkare VI
Neferkamin II
Ibi I
Neferkaure
Neferkauhor
Neferirkare II
Wadjkare
Sekhemkare
Iti
Imhotep
Isu
Iytenu

NINETH & TENTH DYNASTIES
Neferkare
several kings named Kheti
Meri-Hathor (?)
Merikare

MIDDLE KINGDOM

ELEVENTH DYNASTY
Antef I
Antef II
Antef III
Mentuhotep II 2055 -2004
Mentuhotep III (Sankhkare) 2004 – 1992
Mentuhotep IV (Nebtawyre) 1992 – 1987

TWELFTH DYNASTIES
Amenemhet I (Sehetepibre) 1991 – 1962
Senusret I (Kheperkare) 1956 – 1911
Amenemhet II (Nubkaure) 1911 – 1877
Senusret II (Khakheperre) 1877 – 1870
Senusret III (Khakaure) 1836 – 1817
Amenemhet III (Nimaatre) 1817 – 1772
Amenemhet IV (Maakherure) 1772 – 1763
Neferusobek (Sobekkare) 1763 – 1759

SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

THIRTEENTH – SEVENTEENTH DYNASTIES

THIRTEENTH DYNASTY
Wegaf 1783-1779
Amenemhat-senebef
Sekhemre-khutawi
Amenemhat V
Sehetepibre I
Iufni
Amenemhat VI
Semenkare
Sehetepibre II
Sewadjkare
Nedjemibre
Sobekhotep I
Reniseneb
Hor I
Amenemhat VII
Sobekhotep II
Khendjer
Imira-mesha
Antef IV
Seth
Sobekhotep III
Neferhotep I 1696 – 1686
Sihathor 1685 – 1685
Sobekhotep IV 1685 – 1678
Sobekhotep V 1678 – 1674
Iaib 1674 – 1664
Ay 1664 – 1641
Ini I
Sewadjtu
Ined
Hori
Sobekhotep VI
Dedumes I
Ibi II
Hor II
Senebmiu
Sekhanre I
Merkheperre
Merikare

FOURTEENTH DYNASTY
Nehesi
Khatire
Nebfaure
Sehabre
Meridjefare
Sewadjkare
Heribre
Sankhibre
Kanefertemre
Neferibre
Ankhkare

FIFTEENTH DYNASTY
Salitis
Bnon
Apachnan (Khian)
Apophis (Auserre Apepi)
Khamudi

SIXTEENTH DYNASTY
Anat-Her
User-anat
Semqen
Zaket
Wasa
Qar
Pepi III
Bebankh
Nebmaatre
Nikare II
Aahotepre
Aaneterire
Nubankhre
Nubuserre
Khauserre
Khamure
Jacob-Baal
Yakbam
Yoam
Amu

SEVENTEENTH DYNASTY
Antef V
Rahotep
Sobekemzaf I
Djehuti
Mentuhotep VII
Nebirau I
Nebirau II
Semenenre
Suserenre
Sobekemzaf II
Antef VI
Antef VII
Tao I (Senakhtenre)
Tao II (Sekenenre)
Kamose (Wadjkheperre)

THE NEW KINGDOM

EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY
Ahmose (Nebpehtyre) 1539 – 1514 BC
Amenhotep I (Djeserkare) 1514 – 1493 BC
Thutmose I (Akheperkare) 1493 – 1481 BC
Thutmose II (Akheperenre) 1491 – 1479 BC
Hatshepsut (Maatkare) 1473 – 1458 BC
Thutmose III (Menkheperre) 1504 – 1450 BC
Amenhotep II (Akheperure) 1427 – 1392 BC
Thutmose IV (Menkheperure) 1419 – 1386 BC
Amenhotep III (Nebmaatre) 1382 – 1344 BC
Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten 1350 – 1334 BC
Smenkhkare (Ankhkheperure) 1336-1334 BC
Tutankhamun (Nebkheperure) 1334 – 1325 – King Tut BC
Ay (Kheperkheperure) 1325 – 1321 BC
Horemheb (Djeserkheperure) 1323 – 1295 BC

NINETEENTH DYNASTY
Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) 1295 – 1294
Seti I (Menmaatre) 1394 – 1279
Ramesses II (Usermaatresetepenre) 1279 – 1213
Merenptah (Baenrehotephirmaat) 1213 – 1203
Amenmesse (Menmire) 1203 – 1200
Seti II (Userkheperuresetepenre) 1200 – 1194
Siptah (Akhenresetepenre) 1194 – 1188
Tausert (Sitremeritamun) 1185-1187

TWENTIETH DYNASTY
Setakht (Userkhauremeryamun) 1186 – 1184
Ramesses III (Usermaatremeryamun) 1184 – 1153
Ramesses IV (Hekamaatresetepenamun) 1153 – 1147
Ramesses V (Usermaatresekheperenre) 1147 – 1143
Ramesses VI (Nebmaatremeryamun) 1143 – 1136
Ramesses VII (Usermaatresetepenre) 1136 – 1129
Ramesses VIII (Usermaatreakhenamun) 1129 – 1126
Ramesses IX (Neferkaresetepenre) 1126 – 1108
Ramesses X (Khepermaatresetepenre) 1108 – 1099
Ramesses XI (Menmaatresetepenptah) 1099 – 1069

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1070-715 BC)

TWENTY-FIRST – TWENTY-FOURTH DYNASTIES

TWENTY-FIRST DYNASTY
Smedes 1070-1044
Amenemnisu 1040
Psusennes I 1040-992
Amenope 993-984
Osochor 984-978
Siamun 978-959
Psusennes II 959-945

TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY
Shoshenq I 945-924
Osorkon I 924-909
Takelot 909–?
Shoshenq II ?–883
Osorkon II 883-855
Takelot II 860-835
Shoshenq III 835-783
Pami 783-773
Shoshenq IV 773-735
Osorkon IV 735-712

TWENTY-THIRD DYNASTY
Pedubaste I 828-803
Osorkon IV 777-749
Peftjauwybast 740-725

TWENTY-FOURTH DYNASTY
Shepsesre Tefnakht I 725-720 Wahkare Bakenranef 720-715

LATE KINGDOM

TWENTY-FIFTH DYNASTY
Piye 747-716 BC
Shebaka 712-698
Shebitku 698-690
Taharqa 690-664
Tantamani 664-657

TWENTY-SIXTH DYNASTY
Psammetichus I (Psam-tik) 664-610
Nekau (Necho) II 610-595
Psammetichus II 595-589
Apries 589-570
Amasis 570-526
Psammetichus III 526-525

TWENTY-SEVENTH DYNASTY
Cambyses 525-522
Darius I 521-486
Xerxes I 486-466
Artaxerxes I 465-424
Darius II 424-404

TWENTY-EIGHTH DYNASTY
Amyrtaios 404-399

TWENTY-NINETH DYNASTY
Nepherites I 399-393
Psammuthis 393
Hakoris 393-380
Nepherites II 380

THIRTIETH DYNASTY
Nectanebo I 380-362
Teos 365-360
Nectanebo II 360-343

SECOND PERSIAN PERIOD (343-332 B.C.)

THIRTY-FIRST DYNASTY
Ochus (Artaxerxes III) 343-338
Arses 338-336
Darius III Codomannus 335-332

Video 4. History of Egypt

GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD (332 B.C. – 395 A.D.)

Macedonian Kings – Alexandria
Alexander the Great 332-323
Philip Arrhidaeus 323-316
Alexander IV 316-304

Ptolemaic Dynasty
Ptolemy I Soter I 323-285
Ptolemy II Philadelphus 282-246
Ptolemy III Euergeter I 246-222
Ptolemy IV Philopator 222-205
Ptolemy V Epiphanes 205-180
Ptolemy VI Philometor 180-164 & 163-145
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator 145
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II 170-163 & 145-116
Cleopatra III & Ptolemy IX Soter II 116-107 & 88-80
Cleopatra III & Ptolemy X Alexander I 107-88
Cleopatra Berenice 81-80
Ptolemy XI Alexander II 80
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos 80-58 & 55-51
Berenice IV 58-55

Cleopatra VII
Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XIII 51-47
Cleopatra & Ptolemy XIV 47-44
Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XV Cesarion 44-30

Roman Emperors
Augustus 30 B.C. – 14 A.D.
Tiberius 14-37
Gaius Caligula 37-41
Claudius 41-54
Nero 54-68
Galba 68-69
Vespasianus 69-79
Titus 79-81
Domitianus 81-96
Nerva 96-98
Trajanus 98-117
Hadrianus 117-138
Antoninus Pius 138-161
Marcus Aurelius 161-180
Lucius Verrus
Commodus 180-192
Septimus Severus 193-211
Caracalla 198-217
Geta 209-212

Video 5.  History of Egypt

Video 6.  History of Egypt

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

  Video 1. The most beautiful  woman ever: Nefertiti..

Video 3. Fate of Nefertiti mummy

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt is often portrayed in modern times — in works ranging from plays to pornography — as a tragic and misunderstood person. Among the most popular of these portrayals is the Oscar winning 1963 film, “Cleopatra,” in which Elizabeth Taylor played the Queen and Richard Burton portrayed Marc Antony. History paints a much different picture with ancient historian Josephus describing Cleopatra as “a woman who hesitated at no wickedness.”

Video 1. Queen Cleopatra of Egypt

Cleopatra (January 69 BC–November 30, 30 BC) was a Hellenistic co-ruler of Egypt with her brothers/husbands Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV. She later became the supreme ruler of Egypt by consummating an adulterous liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. After Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra aligned with Caesar’s number two man, Mark Antony, in another adulterous relationship. In all, Cleopatra had four children, one by Caesar (Caesarion) and three by Antony (Cleopatra Selene II, Alexander Helios, Ptolemy Philadelphus). Her marriages with her brothers produced no children: it is possible that they were never consummated because they were never close but instead were murderous rivals for the throne of Egypt.

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt – Place in History

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt’s reign marks the final end of the Hellenistic Era in Egypt and the beginning of the Roman Era in the eastern Mediterranean. Her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, ruled briefly in name only. Upon seizing Egypt, Octavian (Julius Caesar’s grand-nephew who is also named Caesar Augustus, and who ruled Rome at the time of Christ’s birth) condemned Caesarion to death with the statement, “Too many Caesars.” Her other children by Marc Antony were taken to Rome and adopted by Antony’s wife, Octavia, who was also Octavian’s elder sister.

One of the excellent endnotes of this story is that Octavia became one of the most prominent women in Roman history, respected and admired by contemporaries for her loyalty, nobility and humanity, and for maintaining traditional Roman feminine virtues. Her care and love for the offspring of her husband’s adulterous relationship with Cleopatra simply added to her Roman status as a virtuous woman. Octavia lived at a time when many succumbed to treachery and intrigue — a remarkable counter-point to the life of Queen Cleopatra and the adulterous liaisons she used to acquire power and lure Marc Antony away from Octavia.

Marc Antony and Cleopatra’s demise was as sordid and tragic as their lives. Antony led combined land and naval forces at the Battle of Actium but lost to the better equipped and trained forces under Octavian. Queen Cleopatra fled the battle and popular legend implies that Antony abandoned his command to follow her to Egypt. Evidence indicates that Antony’s forces simply deserted to join with Octavian in a mass expression of disgust at the immorality and poor discipline of their commander. With the landing of Octavian’s legions in Egypt, Antony committed suicide, knowing his coming fate at the hands of Roman Justice. According to the doctor Olympus (an eye-witness), he was brought to Queen Cleopatra’s tomb and died in her arms. Several days later, Cleopatra died from a self-inflicted snakebite. Octavian, waiting in a building nearby, was informed of her death, and went to see for himself that she was dead.

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt – Her Death

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, in the words of ancient historians and her contemporaries, was a murdering, adulterous seductress who conspired in the demise of her own family, countrymen, and powerful Romans. Her death at her own hand was the last desperate attempt of an immoral woman to at least control her own end, having lost all accumulated wealth, power, and lovers.

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt – The century before the birth of Christ

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt struggled for power in Egypt at the same time that Rome fought a bloody Civil War. Six years before her birth, Pompey the Great intervened in a Jewish conflict in 63 BC by seizing Jerusalem then entered the Holy of Holies in the Jerusalem Temple. The Jewish people never forgave him. Years later during the Roman Civil War in 47 BC, Pompey fled from Caesar after losing the battle of Farsala in Greece. He would not even attempt to ask for help from the Jews. Though Pompey was murdered by the Egyptians, the Jewish people joined two large units — one under the High Priest, Hyrcanus, and the other under the Idumean, Antipater. They helped Caesar defeat the Egyptians, place Queen Cleopatra back in power, and contributed significantly to Caesar’s success in Egypt.

Caesar’s reward for this service would be to elevate Antipater (Herod’s father) to be Regent over Jerusalem in 47 BC. The Roman also confirmed Hyrcanus, the leader of the Jewish sect known as Pharisees, as High Priest for life and granted permanent Roman citizenship to all the Jewish men who fought with the Legions in Egypt. As a result, the Pharisees became the dominant secular and religious power brokers in Palestine and dominated Temple leadership until Roman General Titus Vespasian destroyed Jerusalem in 70 AD.

The rise of the Pharisees to power locked in place the simmering political bitterness between Sadducees and Pharisees This bitterness was a prominent part of the national political landscape of Palestine during Christ’s life and ministry.

A final fascinating note is that it is possible the Apostle Paul’s father or grandfather received Roman citizenship for serving as a soldier in the Egyptian campaign, which would pass down to children. Paul used his privilege of citizenship in Acts 21 to appeal his legal case to Caesar. One discovers that through this process and using the privilege of Roman citizenship, Paul took the Gospel message of Christ into the heart of Rome and the throne of Caesar.

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

In the springtime of 51 BC, Ptolemy Auletes died and left his kingdom in his will to his eighteen year old daughter, Cleopatra, and her younger brother Ptolemy XIII who was twelve at the time. Cleopatra was born in 69 BC in Alexandria, Egypt. She had two older sisters, Cleopatra VI and Berenice IV as well as a younger sister, Arsinoe IV. There were two younger brothers as well, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV. It is thought that Cleopatra VI may have died as a child and Auletes had Berenice beheaded. At Ptolemy Auletes’ death, Pompey, a Roman leader, was left in charge of the children. During the two centuries that preceded Ptolemy Auletes death, the Ptolemies were allied with the Romans. The Ptolemies’ strength was failing and the Roman Empire was rising. City after city was falling to the Roman power and the Ptolemies could do nothing but create a pact with them. During the later rule of the Ptolemies, the Romans gained more and more control over Egypt. Tributes had to be paid to the Romans to keep them away from Egypt. When Ptolemy Auletes died, the fall of the Dynasty appeared to be even closer.

Figure 1. Cleopatra queen of Egypt

According to Egyptian law, Cleopatra was forced to have a consort, who was either a brother or a son, no matter what age, throughout her reign. She was married to her younger brother Ptolemy XIII when he was twelve, however she soon dropped his name from any official documents regardless of the Ptolemaic insistence that the male presence be first among co-rulers. She also had her own portrait and name on coins of that time, ignoring her brother’s. When Cleopatra became co-regent, her world was crumbling down around her. Cyprus, Coele-Syria and Cyrenaica were gone. There was anarchy abroad and famine at home. Cleopatra was a strong-willed Macedonian queen who was brilliant and dreamed of a greater world empire. She almost achieved it. Whether her way of getting it done was for her own desires or for the pursuit of power will never be known for certain. However, like many Hellenistic queens, she was passionate but not promiscuous. As far as we know, she had no other lovers other than Caesar and Antony. Many believe that she did what she felt was necessary to try to save Alexandria, whatever the price.

By 48 BC, Cleopatra had alarmed the more powerful court officials of Alexandria by some of her actions. For instance, her mercenaries killed the Roman governor of Syria’s sons when they came to ask for her assistance for their father against the Parthians. A group of men led by Theodotus, the eunuch Pothinus and a half-Greek general, Achillas, overthrew her in favor of her younger brother. They believed him to be much easier to influence and they became his council of regency. Cleopatra is thought to have fled to Thebaid. Between 51 and 49 BC, Egypt was suffering from bad harvests and famine because of a drought which stopped the much needed Nile flooding. Ptolemy XIII signed a decree on October 27, 50 BC which banned any shipments of grain to anywhere but Alexandria. It is thought that this was to deprive Cleopatra and her supporters who were not in Alexandria. Regardless, she started an army from the Arab tribes which were east of Pelusium. During this time, she and her sister Arsinoe moved to Syria. They returned by way of Ascalon which may have been Cleopatra’s temporary base.

Figure 2. Cleopatra queen of Egypt

In the meantime, Pompey had been defeated at Pharsalus in August of 48 BC. He headed for Alexandria hoping to find refuge with Ptolemy XIII, of whom Pompey was a senate-appointed guardian. Pompey did not realize how much his reputation had been destroyed by Pharsalus until it was too late. He was murdered as he stepped ashore on September 28, 48 BC. The young Ptolemy XIII stood on the dock and watched the whole scene. Four days later, Caesar arrived in Alexandria. He brought with him thirty-two hundred legionaries and eight hundred cavalry. He also brought twelve other soldiers who bore the insignia of the Roman government who carried a bundle of rods with an ax with a blade that projected out. This was considered a badge of authority that gave a clear hint of his intentions. There were riots that followed in Alexandria. Ptolemy XIII was gone to Pelusium and Caesar placed himself in the royal palace and started giving out orders. The eunuch, Pothinus, brought Ptolemy back to Alexandria. Cleopatra had no intentions of being left out of any deals that were going to be made. She had herself smuggled in through enemy lines rolled in a carpet. She was delivered to Caesar. Both Cleopatra and Ptolemy were invited to appear before Caesar the next morning. By this time, she and Caesar were already lovers and Ptolemy realized this right away. He stormed out screaming that he had been betrayed, trying to arouse the Alexandrian mob. He was soon captured by Caesar’s guards and brought back to the palace. It is thought that Caesar had planned to make Cleopatra the sole ruler of Alexandria. He thought she would be a puppet for Rome.

Figure 3. Cleopatra queen of Egypt

The Alexandrian War was started when Pothinus called for Ptolemy XIII’s soldiers in November and surrounded Caesar in Alexandria with twenty thousand men. During the war, parts of the Alexandrian Library and some of the warehouses were burned. However, Caesar did manage to capture the Pharos lighthouse, which kept his control of the harbor. Cleopatra’s sister, Arsinoe, escaped from the palace and ran to Achillas. She was proclaimed the queen by the Macedonian mob and the army. Cleopatra never forgave her sister for this. During the fighting, Caesar executed Pothinus and Achillas was murdered by Ganymede. Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile while he was trying to flee.

Video  1. Cleopatra queen of Egypt

Because of his death, Cleopatra was now the sole ruler of Egypt. Caesar had restored her position, but she now had to marry her younger brother Ptolemy XIV, who was eleven years old. This was to please the Alexandrians and the Egyptian priests. Surely Caesar went through all of this trouble for more than his infatuation with the queen of Egypt. It must have been out of arrogance and his desire to get his hands on Egypt’s vast resources. However, Cleopatra’s intelligence and inheritance did have some influence as well. In what must have been very calculated on his part, she became pregnant rather quickly. For him to have a son to carry the throne was very appealing to him. Caesar and Cleopatra took an extended trip up the Nile for about two months. They stopped in Dendara where Cleopatra was worshipped as a Pharaoh. Caesar would never have this honor. Caesar only left the boat to attend important business in Syria just a few weeks before the birth of their son, Caesarion (Ptolemy Caesar) who was born on June 23, 47 BC.

Video  2. Cleopatra queen of Egypt

During July of the year 46 BC, Caesar returned to Rome. He was given many honors and a ten-year dictatorship. These celebrations lasted from September to October and he brought Cleopatra over, along with her entourage. The conservative Republicans were very offended when he established Cleopatra in his home. Her social manners did not make the situation any better. She upset many. Cleopatra had started calling herself the New Isis and was the subject of much gossip. She lived in luxury and had a statue made of gold placed by Caesar, in the temple of Venus Genetrix . Caesar also openly claimed Caesarion as his son. Many were upset that he was planning to marry Cleopatra regardless of the laws against bigamy and marriages to foreigners.

However, on the Ides of March of 44 BC, all of that came to an end. Caesar was assassinated outside the Senate Building in Rome. He was killed in a conspiracy by his Senators. Many of the Senators thought he was a threat to the republic’s well-being. It was thought that Caesar was making plans to have himself declared king. After Caesar’s murder, Cleopatra fled Rome and returned home to Alexandria. Caesar had not mentioned Cleopatra or Caesarion in his will. She felt her life, as well as that of her child, was in great danger.

Upon returning to Alexandria, she had her consort, Ptolemy XIV, assassinated and established Caesarion as her co-regent at the age of four. She found Egypt suffering from plagues and famine. The Nile canals had been neglected during her absence which caused the harvests to be bad and the inundations low. The bad harvests continued from 43 until 41 BC. Trying to help secure recognition for Caesarion with Caesar’s former lieutenant Dolabella, Cleopatra sent Dolabella the four legions that Caesar had left in Egypt. Cassius captured the legions which caused Dolabella to commit suicide at Laodicea during the summer of 43 BC. She was planning to join Mark Antony and Octavian (who became Augustus) with a large fleet of ships after Dolabella’s death, but was stopped by a violent storm.

Cleopatra watched in the time that followed, who would be the next power in Rome. After Brutus and Cassius had been killed and Antony, Octavian and Lepidus were triumphant, Cleopatra knew which one she would have to deal with. Octavian went back to Italy very ill, so Antony was the one to watch. Her son gained his right to become king when Caesar was officially divinized in Rome on January 1, 42 BC. The main object was the promotion of Octavian, but the triumvirs knew of Cleopatra’s aid to Dolabella.

Cleopatra was invited by Mark Antony to Tarsus in 41 BC. She already knew enough about him to know how to get to him. She knew about his limited strategic and tactical abilities, his blue blood, the drinking, his womanizing, his vulgarity and his ambition. Even though Egypt was on the verge of economic collapse, Cleopatra put on a show for Mark Antony that even Ptolemy Philadelphos couldn’t have done better. She sailed with silver oars, purple sails with her Erotes fanning her and the Nereid handmaids steering and she was dressed as Aphrodite, the goddess of love. This was a very calculated entrance; considered vulgar by many. It was a vulgar display to attract the attention of a vulgar man. Mark Antony loved the idea of having a blue-blooded Ptolemy woman. His former mistress as well as his current wife, Fulvia, were merely middle class.

Cleopatra and Antony spent the winter of 41 to 40 in Alexandria. According to some sources, Cleopatra could get out of him whatever she wanted, including the assassination of her sister, Arsinoe. Cleopatra may not have had so much influence over him later on. He took control of Cyprus from her. Actually it may have been Cleopatra who was the exploited one. Antony needed money and Cleopatra could be generous when it benefited her as well.

In the spring of 40 BC, Mark Antony left Cleopatra and returned home. He did not see her for four years. Antony’s wife, Fulvia had gotten into a serious movement against Octavian over veterans’ allotments of land. She fled to Greece and had a bitter confrontation with Antony. She became ill and died there. Antony patched things up with Octavian that same autumn by marrying Octavian’s sister, Octavia. She was a beautiful and intelligent woman who had been recently widowed. She had three children from her first marriage. In the meantime, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, one boy and one girl, in Alexandria. Antony’s first child by Octavia was a girl. Had Octavia given him a son, things might have turned out different. Antony kept the idea of the treasures of the Ptolemies and how much he wanted it. When he finally did get the treasures, the standard interest rate in Rome fell from 12 percent to 4.

Mark Antony left Italy and went to deal with the Parthians. Octavia had just had another daughter and went with him just as far as Corcyra. He gave her the excuse that he did not want to expose her to the dangers of the battles and sent her home. He told her that she would be more use to him at home in Rome keeping peace with her brother, Octavian. However, the first thing that he did when he reached Antioch, was to send for Cleopatra. Their twin children were officially recognized by Antony and were given the names of Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Mark Antony gave her much land which was very essential to Egypt. He gave her Cyprus, the Cilician coast, Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Judea and Arabia. This allowed Egypt to be able to build ships from the lumber from Cilician coast. Egypt then built a large fleet. Antony had planned a campaign against the Parthians. He obviously needed Cleopatra’s support for this and in 36 BC, he was defeated. He became more indebted to her than ever. They had just had a third child.

On their return to Syria, she met him and what was left of his army, with food, clothing and money. Early in 35 BC, he returned to Egypt with her. Antony’s wife, Octavia was in Athens with supplies and reinforcements waiting for her husband. He sent her a letter telling her to not come any further. Her brother, Octavian, tried to provoke Antony into a fight. Octavian would release troops as well as ships to try to force Antony into a war, which, by this time was almost inevitable. Antony might have been able to patch things up with Octavia and her brother had he returned to Rome in 35 BC. Cleopatra probably did her best to keep him in Alexandria. Octavia remained completely loyal to Antony through all of this.

In 34 BC, Antony had a campaign into Armenia, which was successful and financially rewarding. He celebrated his triumph with a parade through Alexandria with Cleopatra presiding over as the New Isis. Antony presented himself as the New Dionysus as part of his dream of the Graeco-Roman rule. Within a few days, a more political ceremony took place in which the children were given their royal titles with Antony sitting on the throne as well. Ptolemy XV (Caesarion) was made the co-ruler with his mother and was called the King of Kings. Cleopatra was called the Queen of Kings, which was a higher position than that of Caesarion’s. Alexander Helios, which meant the sun, was named Great King of the Seleucid empire when it was at its highest. Cleopatra Selene, which meant the moon, was called Queen of Cyrenaica and Crete. Cleopatra and Antony’s son, Ptolemy Philadelphos was named King of Syria and Asia Minor at the age of two. Cleopatra had dreams of becoming the Empress of the world. She was very close to achieving these dreams and her favorite oath was, "As surely as I shall yet dispense justice on the Roman Capital."

In 32 to 31 BC, Antony finally divorced Octavia. This forced the Western part of the world to recognize his relationship with Cleopatra. He had already put her name and face on a Roman coin, the silver denarii. The denarii was widely circulated throughout the Mediterranean. By doing this, Antony’s relationship with the Roman allegiance was ended and Octavian decided to publish Antony’s will. Octavian then formally declared war against Cleopatra. Antony’s name was nowhere mentioned in the official declaration. Many false accusations were made against Cleopatra saying that she was a harlot and a drunken Oriental. These accusations were most likely made out of fear of Cleopatra and Antony. Many probably thought that the New Isis would prevail and that Antony would start up a new wave of world conquest and rule in a co-partnership from Alexandria. However, Octavian’s navy severely defeated Antony in Actium, which is in Greece, on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian’s admiral, Agrippa, planned and carried out the defeat. In less than a year, Antony half-heartedly defended Alexandria against the advancing army of Octavian. After the defeat, Antony committed suicide by falling on his own sword in 30 BC.

After Antony’s death, Cleopatra was taken to Octavian where her role in Octavian’s triumph was carefully explained to her. He had no interest in any relationship, negotiation or reconciliation with the Queen of Egypt. She would be displayed as a slave in the cities she had ruled over. She must have had memories of her sister, Arsinoe, being humiliated in this way. She would not live this way, so she had an asp, which was an Egyptian cobra, brought to her hidden in a basket of figs. She died on August 12, 30 BC at the age of 39. The Egyptian religion declared that death by snakebite would secure immortality. With this, she achieved her dying wish, to not be forgotten. The only other ruler to cast a shadow on the fascination with Cleopatra was Alexander who was another Macedonian. After Cleopatra’s death, Caesarion was strangled and the other children of Cleopatra were raised by Antony’s wife, Octavia.

Her death was the mark of the end of the Egyptian Monarchs. The Roman Emperors came into to rule in Egypt. The Ptolemies were Macedonian in decent, but ruled as Egyptians, as Pharaohs. Cleopatra was the last Pharaoh of Egypt.

What is often not associated with Cleopatra was her brilliance and her devotion to her country. She was a quick-witted woman who was fluent in nine languages, however, Latin was not one of them. She was a mathematician and a very good businesswoman. She had a genuine respect for Caesar, whose intelligence and wit matched her own. Antony on the other hand almost drove her insane with his lack of intelligence and his excesses. She dealt with him and made the most of what she had to do. She fought for her country. She had a charismatic personality, was a born leader and an ambitious monarch who deserved better than suicide.

The author: Professor Yasser Metwally

http://yassermetwally.com

Video 1. Dr. Zahi Hawass, chief of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities and his pursuit for mummies